Chemical and Chemotaxonomic Aspects of Some Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Species from Utrrakhand: A Review

 

Rakesh K. Joshi1*, Bipin C. Joshi2, Mukul K. Sati1

1Department of Education, Government of Uttrakhand, India

2Department of Chemistry, LSM PG College, Pithoragarh, India

*Corresponding Author E-mail: raakeshjoshi@rediffmail.com

 

ABSTRACT:

The plants are accredited with medicinal properties because of the presence of certain chemicals known as secondary plant metabolites. India has been the principal supplier of the palmarosa oil, vetiver oil, sandalwood oil, lemongrass oil and ginger oil. Essential oils are not only indispensable to the development of fragrance and flavour industries, but also prove potentially important to the pharmaceutical industries as well. In present communication a literature based survey of some aromatic plants is presented in terms of chemical constituents.

 

KEYWORDS: Essential Oils, Neepeta, Valeriana, Cymbopogan, Artemisia.

 

INTRODUCTION:

The plants are accredited with medicinal properties because of the presence of certain chemicals known as secondary plant metabolites. Formation of these plant products is influenced by the intrinsic and extrinsic factors leading to qualitative and quantitative changed in chemical composition. Sometime this comparison is so different that the active constituents of one species are completely absent in the same species of the plant collected from different localities, thus making it totally unfit for the prescribed purpose. Secondly, in some cases more than one geno-types occur for a given plant which also causes the variations in active chemical constituents make up of active secondary plant metabolites within and outside of particular genera.1

 

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS:

The chemical diversity of the Valeriana genera of the Northwestern Himalaya viz, V. wallichi DC, V. himalayana Grub, (v.dioica L.), V. hardwickii. var. arnotiana, V. hardwickii. var. hardwickii were investigated for their terpenoids composition. Valeriana wallichi DC, Indian Valeriana, has been an ingredient of herbal medicines in Indian system of medicine and is used as a substitute of Europian Valeriana officinalis. 2 The chemical compositions of essential oils show three chemically distinct species within Valeriana wallichi. The type one is characterized by presence of maaliol, viridiflorol and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.

The type II contained patchouli alcohol, viridiflorol, 8-acetoxyl-patchouli alcohol and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. Third chemotype contains 15-acetoxy valeranone.3, 4 

 

The main constituents of root oil of V. pyrolaefolia were valeranone and patchouli alcohol.5  The root oil of V. himalayana was mainly composed of valeranone, malliol and α-kessyl acetate, GC and GC-MS analysis of roots of V. hardwickii var. arnotiana also revealed constituents belonging to two different chemotype. The chemotype-I, collected from an altitude of 3500 m from Milam glacier contain valeracetate, 8-epikessylalylycol diacetete, α-kessyl acetate and malliol as the marker compounds while the chemotype-II, collected from Vishnuprayag contained kessyl acetate and maaliol as the main constituents. Epoxysesquithujene, a novel sesquiterpenoid, has also been isolated from V. hardwickii var hardwickii.6, 7              

 

Marker compounds of Himalayan Valeriana species

 

 

The result of analysis of essential oil from different Cymbopogan distans specimen showed existence of four chemically distinct forms with α-oxobisabolene (chemotype-I), citral, geraniol and geranyl acetate (chemotype-II), piperitone (chemotype III), and sesquiterpene alcohols 10-epi-γ-eudasamol and eudesmanediol (IV) as their major compounds. The major compounds of one chemotype at any stage .Thus these must be regarded as the markers of each chemotype.8-12         

 

 

Marker compounds for four chemo types of Cymbopogan distans

 

The genus Tanacetum, commonly known as tansy belongs to the family Astereace. Among the six species distributed in North Western Himalayan region, T. nubigenum Wall is an aromatic herb used as decoction to cure fever. On extensively study on T. nubegenum essential oil showed two stable chemotypes. The essential oil of chemotypes-I of T. nubegenum contains cis-chrysanthenol and related ester as the marker compounds. While chemotype-II contained (3R, 6R)-linalol oxide acetate, 4, 2-hydroxy-4, 6-dimethoxyacetophenone, (Z) and (E)-spiroketalenoether polyyne cis and trans-spiroethers, β-eudasamole and selin-11-en-4-α-ol.13-15

 

Marker compounds of chemotype II of T. nubigenum.

 

Ajuga parviflora (Labiatae) is a small herb, which grows wild in the temperate region of Himalaya. The genus Ajuga has attracted attention since the report in 1976 that Ajuga parviflora leaves were not attracted by African armyworms. Three new neo-clerodane diterpenoids viz. deoxyajuagerin-I, ajugarin-I chlorohydrin and 3β-acetoxy clerodirin C were isolated from Ajuga parviflora.16

 

A new naturally occurring crystalline diasteromer of nepetalactone viz., (7R)-trans, trans-nepetalactone has been identified as the major component (80 %), of the essential oil of N. elliptica. ColeonU, 6, 11, 14-trihydroxy-12-methoxyabieta-5, 8, 11, 13-tetraen-7-one or coleon U12-methyl ether and dehydrocoleon U12-methyl ether were isolated from chloroform extract of Nepeta elliptica.

 

 

Three new iridodial derivatives iridodial β-monoenol, acetate, dihydroiridodial β-enol diacetate and iridodial dienol diacetate have been isolated from the essential oil of N. leucophylla from Kumaun region.17, 18

 

ESSENTIAL OILS:

An essential oil is a concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from the plants.

 

Essential oils are also known as volatile, ethereal oils or oil having the odor or flavour of the plant. The application of essential oils is very extensive and covers a wide range on human activity. Their use in the pharmaceutical industry as antiseptic, carminative, stimulative, diuretic and rubefacient led to investigate their pharmacological, antibacterial and antifungal properties. The volatile substances such as thymol, menthol etc. have been used in various respiratory disorders of bacterial origin. Essential oils such as citronella, lavender, lemongrass and geranium oils have been employed as insect repellent. Many other investigations also report the potent antimicrobial activity of terpenoids.19, 20  India has been the principal supplier of the palmarosa oil, vetiver oil, sandalwood oil, lemongrass oil and ginger oil. Essential oils are not only indispensable to the development of fragrance and flavour industries, but also prove potentially important to the pharmaceutical industries as well. The soft drinks and sugar confectionery industries are also heavily dependent on essential oils for flavoring. The citrus oils such as orange, lemon and lime are the main flavors. These oils have high limonene (83-97 %) content, which is the natural carrier or solvent for the oxygenated compounds. Essential oils are also used in aromatherapy. Aromatherapy can be defined as the therapy of using essential oils or aroma principles of plant to cure the disease.21

 

A significant plant natural product to emerge as a global drug is artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone obtained from the Chinese medicinal plant, Artemisia annua. Artemesinin and its derivatives exhibited considerable activity against cerebral malaria. Several Valeriana species were known to exhibit CNS depressant activity. Taxol from the bark of Taxus brevifolia is an anti-cancer agent. Campothecin isolated from Camptotheca acuminata is another potent anticancer agent. AIDS, the most dreaded disease has shown some hope of remedy now, with the world’s scientific attention shifting towards screening of plants for anti-HIV activity. Phytolacca americana yielded an anti-viral protein which inhibited HIV-replication at picomolar concentration. Trichosanthin, a protein produced primarily in the tuberous roots of Chinese cucumber plant, Trichosanthes kirilowii was known to selectively inhibit replication of HIV virus in vitro by inhibiting ribosomal protein synthesis and cellular reproduction. The higher plants also have been explored extensively for their therapeutic properties. 22 The essential oils find an amazingly wide and varied application in many industries for the scenting and flavouring of all kinds of consumers finished products, most of which are the necessities in modern civilization. Various essential oils are used as skin stimulants, antiphlogistic agents, sedatives, expectorants, carminatives, diuretics, antiseptics and disinfectants. But the most common use of the volatile oil is for flavouring purposes. Therefore, in addition to their proper pharmaceutical uses, the volatile oils are employed as flavours for foods and confectionaries and in the spices, perfumes and cosmetic trades as well as in pharmacy where they are often used as flavoring agents to mask the bad taste of certain medicines. Many of the pure monoterpenes are also used as ingredients of flavor and fragrance components or raw materials for chemical modification to provide valuable flavor and perfume materials.23

 

Several essential oils and monoterpenoids possess insect repellent properties, viz., and citronellal as mosquito repellent. A number of monoterpenoids also possess a pronounced attraction for certain insects and it is probable that the combination of attractant and repellant properties of essential oils play a role of considerable importance in the plant kingdom. Their mild antibacterial and antifungal properties serve to protect the plant against noxious bacteria and fungi. The antiseptic activity of volatile oils often exceeds that of phenol. Thymol is about 20 times more efficacious than phenol. Thymol and carvacrol are still used extensively in mouth washes and incorporated in tooth-pastes where their mild antiseptic properties coupled with their rubefacient action on the germs are beneficial. Among the monoterpenoids, ascaridole has found clinical use as anthelmintic agent and often applied in veterinary medicine against liver flukes. Many of the sesquiterpenes in the Compositae family, mainly germacranolide, pseudoguaianolide and elemanolide lactones are especially active and have shown anti-tumor activity. Certain essential oils may still be used externally as counter-irritants and as rubefacients. They produce an initial feeling of warmth and smarting, which is often followed by a mild local anesthesia making them valuable in essential oils are also used as inhalants with expectorant and cough stimulant antipyuritic preparations.24, 25 Properties due to their mild irritation on bronchial glands. Certain essential oils such as Juniper oils are used as diuretics because they produce irritation in kidneys. The best known essential oil with remarkable sedative activity is the valerian oil, calamus oil, melissa oil and lavender oil. Diterpenoids have become more important during the past few years because of their wide range of biological activity. The biological activity of diterpenoids ranges from antibiotics, insecticidal compounds and tumor inhibitors to the gibberellins plant growth hormones. They represent the major constituents of a number of plant resins, some of which are of commercial importance. Besides the cytotoxic diterpenoids, other diterpenic substances are of interest because of their irritant, toxic or co carcinogenic activity.26

 

The secondary plant metabolites controlled genetically and are affected strongly by environmental influence. Formation of these materials is influenced by the intrinsic and extrinsic factors resulting into the qualitative and quantitative changes. Consequently, there are fluctuations in the nature and quantities of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids and steroids etc., which are invariably used as drug and flavor chemicals. In some cases more than one genotype may cause variation in essential oil composition. More frequent is the occurrence of chemotype of a particular species which possess sharp qualitative and quantitative difference among the flavor constituents. In some chemo types the variation is so sharp that it affects the odour relationship and biological activity. Terpenoids also play an important role in the inter-relationship between the plants and insects. Such compounds play a major part in preventing the destruction of the plant by herbivorous insects and animals. Carvone, citral, citronellal, geraniol, geranial, linalool, limonene and a-pinene are powerful inhibitors of feeding by Locusta migratoria.27 Certain terpenoids inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi.28 Terpenoids are the important secondary plant metabolites having wide occurrence besides alkaloids, steroids, saponins, tannins and organic acids. The lower members of terpenoids are well-known aroma chemicals. The history of these chemicals (terpenoids) spans the centuries of civilization and has been the subject of chemical study from the dawn of modern civilization. The scope of terpenoids is so extensive that it practically covers all spheres of human interest. These compounds are typically found in the higher   plants, mosses, liverworts, algae and lichens, although some are also of insect or microbial origin.29

 

Essential oils are generally mixtures of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds derived from these hydrocarbons. In some oils the hydrocarbons predominate (eg. oil of turpentine), in other (oil of cloves) the bulk of oil consists of oxygenated compounds. These oxygenated constituents mainly determine the odour and taste of volatile oils. The terpenes may be divided into four groups; (a) acyclic terpenes; (b) monocyclic terpenes; (c) bicyclic terpenes; (d) tricyclic terpenes.30 Terpenoids are the important secondary plant metabolites, which are lipid soluble and are located in the cytoplasm of the plant cell. These also occur in special glandular cells on the leaf surface. Terpenoids are derived from isoprene units (CH2=C (CH3) CH=CH2) joined together generally head to tail fashion forming open chain or cyclic compounds. Some irregular terpene so called because they can not be formulated by the usual head-to-tail combination of isoprene unit is also very common in the essential oil of certain families. The mono and sesquiterpenoids are steam volatile constituent and are responsible for the characteristic odor of plants. The skeleton of mono and sesquiterpenoids are made up of two and three isoprene unit respectively, while the skeleton of diterpenoids are made up of four isoprene units and less volatile and non volatile triterpenoids, steroids, carotenoids and natural rubber are the other members of terpene family.31

 

CONCLUSIONS:

We therefore conclude that the aromatic and medicinal plants from Uttrakhand can used for several purposes. High altitude ecosystems are considered to be hotspots of chemical diversity from medicinal plant. The chemical constituents of plants show diversity in there occurrence. These plants become a source of pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes by growing in large scale. 

 

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Received on 30.07.2014          Accepted on 23.08.2014        

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Asian J. Pharm. Tech.  2014; Vol. 4: Issue 3, Pg  157-162