INTRODUCTION:

Our body's ability to protect itself against infection, damage, and disease depends on inflammation, a complex process. Although the natural healing process involves some degree of inflammation, however chronic inflammation can actually result in a number of illnesses and diseases. Inflammation has been linked to the emergence of a number of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, heart disease, autoimmune disorders, and neurological disorders.¹ Cytokines are pro-inflammatory chemicals released during inflammation.

These chemicals stimulate the immune system and ultimately setting off a series of inflammatory reactions. The inflammatory reaction is maintained in check in healthy people and goes away once the infection or injury has healed. However, the inflammatory response is improperly controlled in people with chronic inflammation, and it persists even after the initial injury has healed². Obesity, smoking, stress, a poor diet, and insufficient exercise are just a few of the variables that can cause chronic inflammation. Understanding the causes of inflammation is crucial if you want to lower the risk of getting chronic illnesses. Depending upon time and threshold Inflammation can be divided as:

Acute inflammation:

The body's early reaction to an injury or infection is acute inflammation. It starts out rapidly and lasts for a couple of days or weeks. Redness, swelling, discomfort, and heat in the affected area are possible symptoms. Acute inflammation, a temporary process that happens in reaction to tissue damage, is an essential component of the immune system of the body. An autoimmune illness can also be the cause of acute inflammation, which is frequently brought on by an infection or injury. Several different proteins, hormones, and other molecules work together in the intricate process known as the inflammatory response. Together, these chemicals defend tissue integrity and neutralize the noxious substance. Acute inflammation can be advantageous in the short term, but if it is not controlled, it can develop into chronic inflammation.

Chronic inflammation:

Chronic inflammation develops after an injury or an illness and lasts for a long time. The symptoms might not be as bad as those of acute inflammation, and it may linger for months or even years. Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, has the potential to develop into more severe health issues over time, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and heart disease. Both kinds of inflammation can be brought on by numerous things, such as viruses, bacteria, toxins, and mental or physical stress. Depending on the underlying reason, inflammation may be treated with medication, dietary modifications, or physical therapy. A sustained exposure to irritants or pathogens is the main cause of chronic inflammation. This can include food sensitivities, autoimmune diseases, environmental toxins, allergens, and chronic infections. Poor diet, smoking, inactivity, and stress are additional factors that may contribute to chronic inflammation. Chronic Inflammation Symptoms Fatigue, joint discomfort, muscular pain, headaches, and digestive problems are among the most typical signs and symptoms of chronic inflammation. Low-grade fever, skin rashes, redness, and edema are some more signs.³ One of the greatest methods to minimize inflammation is to eat a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Moreover, engaging in regular exercise and giving up smoking. Inflammation can have both immediate and long-term effects which could result in discomfort, edema, stiffness and ultimately results to chronic disorders like arthritis, cardiovascular disease and respiratory illnesses. Inflammation is result of exposer of body to injury, poisons, illness, and/or physical overuse. Common causes of inflammation includes Bacteria, fungi, or viruses Blunt or penetrating trauma (scrapes, wounds, bruises, etc.), Radiation or chemical exposure, Persistent and consistent use of a body part, Autoimmune diseases (recognizing a normal part of the body as a foreign invader).⁴ Typical symptoms of inflammation include Redness, Swelling, Pain, Warmness and Stiffness.

Figure: 1 Etiology and progression of Inflammation

Inflammation related Pathological conditions:

Crohn’s disease:

The pathogenesis is multifaceted and includes nutritional factors, environmental factors, infectious factors, immunological factors, and environmental factors. An intestinal crypt is the site of the initial lesion's infiltration. It can progress into lesions that have the familiar cobblestone mucosal appearances and skip lesions down the length of the gut while sparing the normal mucosa-covered regions. Scarring replaces the inflamed portions of the intestines as the Crohn's flare subsides.⁵

Rheumatoid Arthritis:

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, autoimmune, inflammatory condition that primarily affects synovial joints and whose cause is yet unknown. The pathogenesis of RA is triggered by TNF alpha's effects on synoviocytes, macrophages/monocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoclasts cause bone degradation, and synoviocytes prevent collagen from being secreted.⁶

Ulcerative Colitis:

Ulcerative colitis is an idiopathic, chronic inflammatory disorder of the colonic mucosa that typically begins in the rectum and progresses through all or a portion of the colon. However, some patients with proctitis or left-sided colitis may have a caecal patch of inflammation. The intestinal epithelium contributes to host defence in addition to forming a physical barrier by generating antimicrobial peptides (such as defensins), which prevent bacterial invasion. In colonic samples from ulcerative colitis patients, there is an upregulation of the expression of a few human beta-defensins. It is unknown if the inflammatory cytokines or bacteria are what trigger this increase in defens in synthesis.⁷

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease:

A serious and progressive lung condition known as COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) is characterised by breathing issues, excessive mucus production, and a persistent cough. When the lung tissue deteriorates, an inflamed and obstructed airway results, which is what causes it. Chronic coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, exhaustion, and shortness of breath are all signs of COPD. Medications, lifestyle modifications, and even surgery are all options for treating COPD.⁸All smokers have inflammation in their lungs, especially in their small airways.⁹

Psoriatic Arthritis:

Psoriasis is a systemic inflammatory and autoimmune condition that mostly affects the skin. It is characterised by the activation of effector T cells and dysregulated production of inflammatory cytokines. Given their importance in Pso and other types of spondylarthritis as well as their origin from Th17, cytokines from this gene are anticipated to be significant in PsA.¹⁰

If inflammation is left untreated, it may become a complication of the condition or indicate an underlying illness or injury. Untreated inflammatory symptoms can result in a wide range of conditions, including Stroke, Heart disease, Respiratory disease, Diabetes, Cancer, Obesity (Figure 1). Currently inflammation is mainly controlled with some allopathic drugs. The most popular class of medication used to treat inflammation is nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) and Corticosteroids. However, these Drugs are associated with several unwanted adverse effects (Liver damage, Acidity etc.). These unwanted hurtful effects can be reduced by the using allopathic drugs in combination with some safe natural ayurvedic drugs. Many plants possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, when compared with synthetic drugs herbs plays a significant role against inflammation with minimum adverse effects. For instance, studies on the anti-inflammatory properties of turmeric, ginger, garlic, and cinnamon have all been conducted. They are believed to do so by preventing the synthesis of chemicals called pro-inflammatory cytokines. Other plants, like basil, oregano, and rosemary, have antioxidant compounds that help shield cells from the harm that free radicals can do. These substances could lessen tissue damage and inflammation. In addition, many plants are abundant in vitamins and minerals that are vital for preserving a normal level of inflammation. Since ancient times, herbs have been used to treat a wide range of illnesses, including inflammation. They provide safe, effective, and all-natural treatments for inflammation and can help lessen discomfort, stiffness, and swelling. Antioxidants, flavonoids, polyphenols, and terpenes are just a few of the components found in herbs that can help reduce inflammation. Free radicals are unstable chemicals that can harm cells and cause inflammation. Antioxidants aid in the neutralization of these unstable molecules. Polyphenols and flavonoids are substances that can shield cells from harm and aid to minimize inflammation. Terpenes are chemicals that can help lessen pain and inflammation. The anti-inflammatory properties of herbs like turmeric, ginger, and garlic are well documented. Curcumin, an ingredient in turmeric that has been discovered to be a potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, is present in the spice. It has been demonstrated that the anti-inflammatory activities of the chemicals gingerol and shogaol found in ginger. Allicin, a substance known to help reduce inflammation, is a component of garlic. Allopathic drugs are more potent. However allopathic drugs has been reported with side effects on kidney, liver and lungs which includes Acetaminophen leads to liver damage¹¹ Methotrexate cause liver damage¹² Diclofenac cause liver and kidney damage¹³ Tetracycline cause liver damage¹⁴^,¹⁵ Carbamazepine cause kidney damage¹⁶. Hence there is still need of some adjuvant herbal therapy with allopathic drug which can reduce dose and unwanted adverse effects of these synthetic drugs.

VITAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY HERBS:

Curcuma longa According to research, curcumin is a highly pleiotropic chemical with the ability to interact with a wide range of molecules involved in inflammation.¹⁷ The curcumins were found to inhibit the COX-I and COX-II enzymes. Curcumins I through III inhibited the COX-I enzyme. Additionally, curcumins I through III effectively inhibited the COX-II enzyme.¹⁸ According to our findings, curcumin may only have a modest anti-bactericidal effect on H. pylori and on the generation of inflammatory cytokines.¹⁹ Interestingly, by suppressing the release of PGE2 and IL 12, NR INF 02 and polysaccharide fraction demonstrated strong anti-inflammatory activity.²⁰ Zingiber officinale type 2 diabetic individuals who received ginger supplements lowered inflammation. Therefore, it might be a good treatment to lower the risk of some long-term diabetic problems.²¹ Ginger may be used as a cholesterol-lowering, antithrombotic, and anti-inflammatory agent.²² zingiber officinale was also evaluated for treatment for rheumatoid arthritis and shows a potent anti-inflammatory activity.²³ Female Lewis rats with SCW-induced arthritis were used as test subjects to determine the anti-inflammatory effects of ginger's other secondary metabolites, the essential oils (GEO), which contain terpenes with documented phytoestrogenic activity.²⁴ Rosmarinus officinale Depending on the dose employed, consuming rosemary essential oil can have an impact on mouse experimental inflammatory models. R. officinalis L. shown significant anti-inflammatory efficacy through suppression of leukocytes, exudation, as well as a pro-inflammatory enzyme and mediators (MPO, NOx, IL-1b, and TNF-a)²⁵ (21).²⁷ Borago officinale. Studies shows that borage extracts have anti-inflammatory characteristics examined how protein denaturation, lipoxygenase activity, and proteinase activity were inhibited.²⁸ Rosemary-Antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, anti-diabetic, antidepressant, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity properties of rosemary have been discovered. Numerous physiologically active chemicals were discovered to be present in rosemary essential oil and extract.²⁹ Evening primrose has been proven to control inflammation by changing specific inflammatory indices.³⁰ Plant has been proved for its anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant effects³¹ Devil’s claw’s extracts and preparations, as well as verbascoside (their principal active ingredient), have potent anti-inflammatory capabilities.³² The anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions of this medication have strong in vivo and in vitro pharmacological evidence.³³Ashwagandha According to the current research, ashwagandha significantly reduced in vitro protein denaturation by acting as an anti-inflammatory. The effect was most likely brought on by the ashwagandha's alkaloid and withanolide content.³⁴ Investigation showed that ability of plant to suppress the NF-kB and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and modify cytokine expression may be the cause of its anti-inflammatory effects.³⁵ Calendulawas found to be anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, angiogenic, and fibroblastic qualities that helped with the proliferative and inflammatory stages of the healing process. Calendula flower extract has most potent anti-inflammatory effects.³⁶^,³⁷^,³⁸ Cat’s claw-Cat's claw inhibits the activation of NF-KB and defends cells from oxidative damage. These findings offer mechanistic support for the commonly held belief that cat's claw is a potent anti-inflammatory substance.³⁹ According to these findings, cat's claws from both species have potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.⁴⁰ Chamomile regulates COX-2 gene expression and direct inhibition of COX-2 enzyme activity were the mechanisms through which chamomile inhibited the generation of PGE2. This may play a significant role in the reduction of inflammation and may support chamomile's anti-inflammatory, anti-neoplastic, and immunoregulatory properties.⁴¹ The use of chamomile as a potentially strong therapeutic anti-inflammatory drug is supported by this investigation.⁴² Cilantrohas antioxidant potential, superior antibacterial activity, and an exceptional anti-inflammatory impact can be found in the essential oil derived from the C. sativum chemotype growing in the Al-Kharj region of Saudi Arabia.⁴³ Licorice root has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of bioactive chemicals produced from licorice, as well as their pharmaceutical potential.(51)The anti-inflammatory effects of licorice extract, three triterpenes, and thirteen flavonoids are mostly manifested by a reduction in TNF, MMPs, PGE2, and free radicals.⁴⁴ This study indicated that licorice extract and its three bioactive components can be used to treat inflammation-related conditions, such as oxidative liver damage and inflammation diseases, based on mechanistic-based data that supports traditional claims.⁴⁵ Parsley act as antimicrobial agents against pathogenic bacteria and fungi that can cause severe urinary tract infections.⁴⁶ Beside these all plants anciently used herb termed as Artemisia princeps Linn. had also been evaluated and screened for pharmacological active ligands and results obtained shows therapeutical ability of herb in various pathological condition including inflammation. Hence distinguished information of herb needs to be integrated for compiling its pharmacological importance.

ARTEMISIA PRINCEPS:

Since ancient times, Artemisia princeps. also referred to as mug wort, has been used in traditional medicine. Recent research has demonstrated the potential of this herb as a potent antibacterial. Researchers have discovered that Artemisia princeps extracts exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral action against a variety of species. Sesquiterpene lactones, which are known to have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity, are thought to be the active ingredients in mug wort. The anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects of mug wort have also been discovered. For these reasons, Artemisia princeps is being researched as a possible infection therapy and Recently Artemisia princeps has been found as an Anti-inflammatory⁴⁷, Anti-coagulant, Anti-platelet⁴⁸, Anti-oxidant⁴⁹^,⁵⁰, Anti-obesity, Anti-diabetic⁵¹,

Figure 2: Artemisia princeps Linn.

Morphological, Biology and Ecology:

The stem is erect, sparsely arachnoid puberulent in upper half and glabrescent towards base. The leaves are tomentose beneath, glabrous above. The leaves possess long petiole; the leaf blade is ovate or elliptic-ovate. The uppermost leaves are pinnate leaf like bracts and 3-lobed or entire. The flowers are broad panicle with divaricate, erecto-patent branches. Achenes are seen to be oblong, truncate at both ends. Artemisia princeps is a rhizomatous perennial herb species that in Western Europe starts to flower towards the end of August or early September.

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF ARTEMISIA PRINCEPS:

Traditionally, Artemisia princeps is commonly used for treating menstrual and digestion related problems and against intestinal worms. The leaves are slightly bitter and very aromatic so they are added as a seasoning to certain dishes in small quantities for nice aroma and stimulation of digestive juices. Till now plant had been screened and evaluated for therapeutically active phytoconstituent for treatment of several diseases. Due to its bronchodilatorqualities, infusion of bark and leaf in water is used for curingasthma. Because of its anti-spasmodic qualities, Artemisia princeps is a highly effective natural treatment for menstruation pain.⁴⁹ The pain can be significantly diminished with a warm cup of Artemisia princeps tea. Further diarrhea can be efficiently treated with Artemisia princeps Diarrhea can be treated using a water infusion of the flowers and leaves of Artemisia. Artemisia princeps has excellent anti-parasitic qualities, and a water extract of it can be used to treat malaria. Artemisia princeps Wonderful anthelmintic capabilities can be found in Artemisia princeps.⁴⁹ Intestinal worms can be removed using a leaf water decoction. Since Artemisia princeps has anti-bacterial and antiseptic properties, the paste of the leaves can be applied as a poultice for treating all kinds of skin infection. Artemisia princeps has a soothing effect on the nerves and can be used as a home remedy for anxiety, restlessness, anxiety, insomnia and depression. Artemisia princepsis an all-round remedy for treating a variety of stomach problems.⁴⁹ It stimulates gastric juices and helps improve digestion. It reduces colic and stomach cramps along with treating diarrhea (Figure 3).

PHYTOCONSTITUENTS AND ANTI-INFLAMMATORY POTENTIAL OF ARTEMISIA PRINCEPS:

The chemical makeup of this plant species includes essential oils, phenolic acids, flavonoid, and lactone, phenolic acid, coumarins, other groups of metabolites, has allowed for a variety of applications. Essential oil is made from the sections of the Japanese Mug wort plant that grow above the ground and is made up of various medicinal compounds like cineole, camphor and pinene. This particular species is used as culinary spices in food industry. The antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal capabilities of chemical composition have a wide range of health-promoting qualities.

Artemisinin is another chemical compound that has been isolated from Mug wort. Artemisinin is believed to have anticancer properties. Flavonoids are believed to treat the CNS disorder. Moonwort’s compounds are also known to increase uterine contractions, boosting menstrual flow. In these days, whole plants are used in covid-19 pandemic. Artemisia princeps contain variety of chemical constituents including Flavonoids, monoterpenes, Ignan Glucoside, phenolic acid, organic acid, sesquiterpenes Glucoside, organic acid and other significant molecules as shown in figure 4.

Apigenin: Neuroprotective properties of apigenin and other flavonoids in light of the desperate need for safe anti-inflammatory treatments in the treatment of CNS-related illnesses. There is strong evidence from pre-clinical and epidemiological research to support the use of apigenin as a natural alternative therapy for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.⁵² Apigenin and Luteolin efficiently reduced inflammation brought on by carrageenan in a mouse model. ⁵³the trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) model and the dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) model of inflammatory bowel disease, also known as rat colitis, have shown that apigenin has anti-inflammatory effects.⁵⁴

Diosmetin: Diosmetin inhibits AD, pointing to the possibility that it could be used as a treatment for this atopic disorder.⁵⁵ Diosmetin has been proved to inhibit Akt and NF-kB pathways in MH7A cells, resulting in anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effects.⁵⁶

Eriodictyol: Eriodictyol was shown to reduce the lung damage caused by LPS in mice by controlling the Nrf2 pathway and preventing the expression of inflammatory cytokines in macrophages, indicating that Eriodictyol could be used as a potential medication to treat inflammation due to LPS-induced lung damage.⁵⁷

Eupafolin-Eupafolin successfully reduced the expression of iNOS and COX-2 and inhibited LPS-induced edema development in mouse paw and lung models. These result revealed that eupafolin can be developed as an anti-inflammatory drug and showed that eupafolin has anti-inflammatory effects.⁵⁸ The anti-inflammatory effects are proof of the traditional usage against inflammatory disease.⁵⁹

Kaempferol: Kaempferol shows anti-atherosclerotic effect by modulating the gene and protein expression of inflammatory molecules.⁶⁰ Many studies have demonstrated that kaempferol has anti-inflammatory properties, which were discovered while reviewing the various remarkable qualities of the substance. Both in vivo and in vitro studies have proven that it is a secure and effective natural dietary anti-inflammatory drug. Inflammatory indicators were improved by kaempferol.⁶¹

Vitex: Vitex trifolia leaves extract has a strong treatment for chronic inflammatory symptoms due to its significant anti-inflammatory action.⁶²

Jaceosidine: According to this result, jaceosidin might serve as an extra antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent for treating atherosclerosis.⁴⁹

Qurecetine: Quercetin is an antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor molecule that may be able to cure severe inflammation, which is the primary life-threatening illness in COVID-19 patients.⁶³According to this study, quercetin molecule and M. fragrans seed extract have the ability to reduce inflammation as evidenced by their ability to stop the production of TNF-, IL-6, IL-1, and NO9.⁶⁴ It was discovered that quercetin could lessen the negative effects of hyperglycemia and inflammatory conditions on vascular endothelium.⁶⁵ Rutin and quercetin reduced the edema that was caused in the acute phase, which was triggered 3-5 h after carrageenan injection (day 6), although hesperidin was only active at 3 h.⁶⁶ Mentioned phytoconstituents present in artemisia princeps had been proved separately as anti-inflammatory agents hence isolation of these constituent from plant or evaluating plant extract against suitable model of inflammation may reveal the exact anti-inflammatory potential of Artemisia princeps.

CONCLUSION:

Reviewed literature shows therapeutic potentials of Artemisia princeps in several pathological condition like Malaria, Diarrhea, Asthma and different neurological disorders. Plant comprises of several potent phytochemical including Apigenin, Diosmetin, Eriodicytol, Eupafolin, Kaempferol, Vitex, Jaceosidine, Querecetine most of which was associated with anti-inflammatory activities. Hence Artemisia princeps. may be used as potent anti-inflammatory agent alone or in combine formulation with some allopathic drugs which can lead to synergistic effect and may reduce side effects of allopathic formulations. Howeverpharmacological studies are still required forvalidation of anti-inflammatory potential of Artemisia princeps.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

None.

REFERENCES:

1. Punchard NA, Whelan CJ, Adcock I. The Journal of Inflammation. J Inflamm. 2004; 1:1–4.

2. Feghali CA, Wright TM. Cytokines involved in acute inflammation. Front Biosci. 1997; 2:12–26.

3. Ahmed AU. An overview of inflammation: Mechanism and consequences. Front Biol China. 2011; 6(4):274–81.

4. V. Stankov S. Definition of Inflammation, Causes of Inflammation and Possible Anti-inflammatory Strategies. Open Inflamm J. 2012; 5(1):1–9.

5. Petagna L, Antonelli A, Ganini C, Bellato V, Campanelli M, Divizia A, et al. Pathophysiology of Crohn’s disease inflammation and recurrence. Biol Direct. 2020; 15(1):1–10.

6. Akram MS, Pery N, Butler L, Shafiq MI, Batool N, Rehman MF ur, et al. Challenges for biosimilars: focus on rheumatoid arthritis. Crit Rev Biotechnol. 2021; 41(1):121–53.

7. OrdaÌs I, Eckmann L, Talamini M, Baumgart DC, Sandborn WJ. Ulcerative colitis. Lancet. 2012; 380(9853):1606–19.

8. Brashier BB, Kodgule R. Risk factors and pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). J Assoc Physicians India. 2012; 60(SUPPL FEB2012):17–21.

9. MacNee W. ABC of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Pathology, pathogenesis, and pathophysiology. Br Med J. 2006; 332(7551):1202–4.

10. Kerschbaumer A, Fenzl KH, Erlacher L, Aletaha D. An overview of psoriatic arthritis – epidemiology, clinical features, pathophysiology and novel treatment targets. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2016; 128(21–22):791–5.

11. Olaleye MT, Joa BT. Acetaminophen-induced liver damage in mice : Effects of some medicinal plants on the oxidative defense system. 2008; 59:319–27.

12. Dahl MGC, Gregory MM, Scheuer PJ. Liver Damage due to Methotrexate in Patients with Psoriasis. 1971; (March).

13. Osičková J, Banďouchová H, Kováčová V, Král J, Novotný L, Ondráček K, et al. Oxidative stress and liver damage in birds exposed to diclofenac and lead. Acta Vet Brno. 2014; 83(4):299–304.

14. Davis JS, Kaufman RH. Tetracycline toxicity. A clinicopathologic study with special reference to liver damage and its relationship to pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1966; 95(4):523–9.

15. Björnsson E, Lindberg J, Olsson R. Liver reactions to oral low-dose tetracyclines. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1997; 32(4):390–5.

16. Al-bakri N, Al-kawaz U, Selman MO, Technologies AR. Histological Study On Kidney Affected By Carbamazepine drug. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2016; (January).

17. Jurenka JS. Anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin, a major constituent of Curcuma longa: A review of preclinical and clinical research. Altern Med Rev. 2009; 14(2):141–53.

18. Ramsewak RS, DeWitt DL, Nair MG. Cytotoxicity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of curcumins I-III from Curcuma longa. Phytomedicine. 2000; 7(4):303–8.

19. Koosirirat C, Linpisarn S, Changsom D, Chawansuntati K, Wipasa J. Investigation of the anti-inflammatory effect of Curcuma longa in Helicobacter pylori-infected patients. Int Immunopharmacol. 2010; 10(7):815–8.

20. Chandrasekaran C, Sundarajan K, Edwin J, Gururaja G, Mundkinajeddu D, Agarwal A. Immune-stimulatory and anti-inflammatory activities of Curcuma longa extract and its polysaccharide fraction. Pharmacognosy Res. 2013; 5(2):71–9.

21. Mahluji S, Ostadrahimi A, Mobasseri M, Attari VE, Payahoo L. Anti-inflammatory effects of Zingiber officinale in type 2 diabetic patients. Adv Pharm Bull. 2013; 3(2):273–6.

22. Thomson M, Al-Qattan KK, Al-Sawan SM, Alnaqeeb MA, Khan I, Ali M. The use of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) as a potential anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic agent. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2002; 67(6):475–8.

23. Al-Nahain A, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M. Zingiber officinale : A Potential Plant against Rheumatoid Arthritis. Arthritis. 2014; 2014:1–8.

24. Chen J, Zhang H, Timmermann BN. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of the Essential Oils of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in Experimental Rheumatoid Arthritis. Biochem Pharmacol. 2016;

25. Rocha J, Eduardo-Figueira M, Barateiro A, Fernandes A, Brites D, Bronze R, et al. Anti-inflammatory effect of rosmarinic acid and an extract of rosmarinus officinalis in rat models of local and systemic inflammation. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2015; 116(5):398–413.

26. Juhás Š, Bukovská A, Čikoš Š, Czikková S, Fabian D, Koppel J. Anti-inflammatory effects of Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil in mice. Acta Vet Brno. 2009; 78(1):121–7.

27. Benincá JP, Dalmarco JB, Pizzolatti MG, Fröde TS. Analysis of the anti-inflammatory properties of Rosmarinus officinalis L. in mice. Food Chem. 2011; 124(2):468–75.

28. Michalak M, Zag M, Klimek-szczykutowicz M. Borago officinalis Extracts on Skin Cells. 2023;

29. H R. Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary): A Novel Therapeutic Agent for Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Anticancer, Antidiabetic, Antidepressant, Neuroprotective, Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Obesity Treatment. Herb Med Open Access. 2017; 03(02).

30. Ismail MF, El-maraghy S a, Sadik N a H. Study of the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of evening primrose oil in adjuvant arthritis. African J Biochem Res. 2008; 2(3):74–80.

31. Safaahussain M, Abdulridha MK, Khudhair MS. Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and vasodilating effect of evening primrose oil in type 2 diabetic patients. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2016; 39(2):173–8.

32. Gyurkovska V, Alipieva K, Maciuk A, Dimitrova P, Ivanovska N, Haas C, et al. Anti-inflammatory activity of Devil’s claw in vitro systems and their active constituents. Food Chem. 2011; 125(1):171–8.

33. McGregor G, Fiebich B, Wartenberg A, Brien S, Lewith G, Wegener T. Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens): An anti-inflammatory herb with therapeutic potential. Phytochem Rev. 2005; 4(1):47–53.

34. Chandra S, Chatterjee P, Dey P, Bhattacharya S. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effect of ashwagandha: A preliminary study in vitro. Pharmacogn J. 2012; 4(29):47–9.

35. Sikandan A, Shinomiya T, Nagahara Y. Ashwagandha root extract exerts anti-inflammatory effects in HaCaT cells by inhibiting the MAPK/NF-κB pathways and by regulating cytokines. Int J Mol Med. 2018; 42(1):425–34.

36. Parente LML, Lino Júnior RDS, Tresvenzol LMF, Vinaud MC, De Paula JR, Paulo NM. Wound healing and anti-inflammatory effect in animal models of calendula officinalis L. growing in Brazil. Evidence-based Complement Altern Med. 2012; 2012.

37. Preethia KC, Kuttanb G, Kuttan R. Anti-inflammatory activity of flower extract of Calendula officinalis Linn. and its possible mechanism of action. Indian J Exp Biol. 2009; 47(2):113–20.

38. Silva D, Ferreira MS, Sousa-Lobo JM, Cruz MT, Almeida IF. Anti-inflammatory activity of calendula officinalis l. Flower extract. Cosmetics. 2021; 8(2):1–7.

39. Thompson JH, Zhang X, Liu X, Mannick EE. Anti-inflammatory actions of cat ’ s claw : the role of NF kB. Aliment Pharmacol. 1998; 1(12):1279–89.

40. Sandoval M, Okuhama NN, Zhang X, Condezo LA, Lao J, Angeles FM. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of cat ’ s claw ( Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria guianensis). 2002; 325–37.

41. Srivastava JK, Pandey M, Gupta S. Chamomile, a novel and selective COX-2 inhibitor with anti-inflammatory activity. Life Sci. 2009; 85(19–20):663–9.

42. T. T, T. S, M. NN, H. Y, D. Y, M. O, et al. Effect of MDR1 gene promoter methylation in patients with ulcerative colitis. Int J Mol Med. 2009; 23(4):521–7.

43. Foudah AI, Alqarni MH, Alam A, Ayman Salkini M, Ibnouf Ahmed EO, Yusufoglu HS. Evaluation of the composition and in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities of Cilantro (Coriandrum sativum L. leaves) cultivated in Saudi Arabia (Al-Kharj). Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021; 28(6):3461–8.

44. Yang R, Yuan BC, Ma YS, Zhou S, Liu Y. The anti-inflammatory activity of licorice, a widely used chinese herb. Pharm Biol. 2017; 55(1):5–18.

45. Yu JY, Ha JY, Kim KM, Jung YS, Jung JC, Oh S. Anti-inflammatory activities of licorice extract and its active compounds, glycyrrhizic acid, liquiritin and liquiritigenin, in BV2 cells and mice liver. Molecules. 2015; 20(7):13041–54.

46. Helmy A, El-Shazly M, Seleem A, Abdelmohsen U, Salem MA, Samir A, et al. The synergistic effect of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from a combined extract of parsley, corn silk, and gum arabic: In vivo antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities. Mater Res Express. 2020; 7(2).

47. Chang SH, Jung EJ, Park YH, Lim DG, Ko NY, Choi WS, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of <I>Artemisia princeps</I> in antigen-stimulated T cells and regulatory T cells. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2009; 61(8):1043–50.

48. Ryu R, Jung UJ, Kim HJ, Lee W, Bae JS, Park YB, et al. Anticoagulant and antiplatelet activities of artemisia princes pampanini and its bioactive components. Prev Nutr Food Sci. 2013; 18(3):181–7.

49. Kim MJ, Han JM, Jin YY, Baek NI, Bang MH, Chung HG, et al. In vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of jaceosidin from Artemisia princeps Pampanini cv. Sajabal. Arch Pharm Res. 2008; 31(4):429–37.

50. On JY, Kim JM, Kothari D, Kim SK. Antioxidant Properties and Kidney Cell Protection by the Extracts of Curcuma longa, Artemisia princeps, Salicornia herbacea, and Schisandra chinesis. Fermentation. 2022; 8(12).

51. Yamamoto N, Kanemoto Y, Ueda M, Kawasaki K, Fukuda I, Ashida H. Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of ethanol extract of Artemisia princeps in C57BL/6 mice fed a high-fat diet. Food Funct. 2011; 2(1):45–52.

52. Ginwala R, Bhavsar R, Chigbu DGI, Jain P, Khan ZK. Potential role of flavonoids in treating chronic inflammatory diseases with a special focus on the anti-inflammatory activity of apigenin. Antioxidants. 2019; 8(2):1–28.

53. Funakoshi-Tago M, Nakamura K, Tago K, Mashino T, Kasahara T. Anti-inflammatory activity of structurally related flavonoids, Apigenin, Luteolin and Fisetin. Int Immunopharmacol. 2011; 11(9):1150–9.

54. Mascaraque C, González R, Suárez MD, Zarzuelo A, De Medina FS, Martínez-Augustin O. Intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of apigenin K in two rat colitis models induced by trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid and dextran sulphate sodium. Br J Nutr. 2015; 113(4):618–26.

55. Lee D hyo, Park J ki, Choi J, Jang H, Seol J won. Anti-inflammatory effects of natural flavonoid diosmetin in IL-4 and LPS-induced macrophage activation and atopic dermatitis model. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020; 89(March):107046.

56. Chen Y, Wang Y, Liu M, Zhou B, Yang G. Diosmetin exhibits anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effects on TNF-α-stimulated human rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes through regulating the Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways. Phyther Res. 2020; 34(6):1310–9.

57. Zhu GF, Guo HJ, Huang Y, Wu CT, Zhang XF. Eriodictyol, a plant flavonoid, attenuates LPS-induced acute lung injury through its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activity. Exp Ther Med. 2015; 10(6):2259–66.

58. Chen CC, Lin MW, Liang CJ, Wang SH. The anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of eupafolin in lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 Macrophages. PLoS One. 2016; 11(7):1–15.

59. Maas M, Deters AM, Hensel A. Anti-inflammatory activity of Eupatorium perfoliatum L. extracts, eupafolin, and dimeric guaianolide via iNOS inhibitory activity and modulation of inflammation-related cytokines and chemokines. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011; 137(1):371–81.

60. Kong L, Luo C, Li X, Zhou Y, He H. The anti-inflammatory effect of kaempferol on early atherosclerosis in high cholesterol fed rabbits. Lipids Health Dis. 2013; 12(1):1–12.

61. Alam W, Khan H, Shah MA, Cauli O, Saso L. Kaempferol as a Dietary Anti-Inflammatory Agent: Current Therapeutic Standing. Molecules. 2020; 25(18):1–12.

62. Matsui M, Kumar-Roine S, Darius HT, Chinain M, Laurent D, Pauillac S. Characterisation of the anti-inflammatory potential of Vitex trifolia L. (Labiatae), a multipurpose plant of the Pacific traditional medicine. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009; 126(3):427–33.

63. Saeedi-Boroujeni A, Mahmoudian-Sani MR. Anti-inflammatory potential of Quercetin in COVID-19 treatment. J Inflamm (United Kingdom). 2021; 18(1):1–9.

64. Dewi K, Widyarto B, Erawijantari P, Widowati W. In vitro study of Myristica fragrans seed (Nutmeg) ethanolic extract and quercetin compound as anti-inflammatory agent. Int J Res Med Sci. 2015; 3(9):2303–10.

65. Azeem M, Hanif M, Mahmood K, Ameer N, Chughtai FRS, Abid U. An insight into anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects of quercetin: a review. Polym Bull. 2023; 80(1):241–62.

66. Guardia T, Rotelli AE, Juarez AO, Pelzer LE. Anti-inflammatory properties of plant flavonoids. Effects of rutin, quercetin and hesperidin on adjuvant arthritis in rat. Farmaco. 2001; 56(9):683–7.

Received on 26.06.2023 Modified on 17.07.2023

Asian J. Pharm. Tech. 2023; 13(4):285-292.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5713.2023.00051